New research led by Hiral Naik on four of South Africa’s medically important snake species highlights why understanding snake behaviour is essential for preventing snakebites and promoting human–snake coexistence.

When people encounter a venomous snake, the instinctive response is often fear. A raised cobra hood, a puff adder’s hiss, or a rattlesnake’s warning rattle can be intimidating. These behaviours are sometimes interpreted as signs that a snake is aggressive and preparing to attack.

But what if we understood these behaviours differently?

For snakes, humans can represent a potential threat. Like many other animals, snakes have evolved strategies to avoid predators and protect themselves when they can no longer escape from a threat. Learning about the various defensive responses of snakes can help us make safer decisions around them, reduce unnecessary snake killings, and develop more effective approaches to snakebite prevention.

A new study published in Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology provides important insights into this behaviour, examining how four of South Africa’s medically important snake species respond to a simulated human threat.

What happens when a snake feels threatened?

In the study, Determinants of striking and defensive behaviour in four South African medically important snake species, the authors investigated the defensive responses of puff adders (Bitis arietans), black mambas (Dendroaspis polylepis), snouted cobras (Naja annulifera), and Mozambique spitting cobras (Naja mossambica).

48 snakes were presented with a model human hand and forearm to simulate a potential threat and their defensive behaviours were recorded. The aim was to understand how these species responded when confronted with an approaching threat and whether their responses differed. The results revealed important differences between species. Black mambas, puff adders, and snouted cobras displayed defensive striking, with some individuals biting the simulated hand. However, Mozambique spitting cobras, did not strike or bite the model, instead relying on spitting venom as their primary defensive response in the experimental trials.

Puff adders also demonstrated particularly high strike acceleration over short distances, highlighting the importance of maintaining a safe distance from this species.

Perhaps most importantly, the results showed that snakes generally attempted to escape when given the opportunity, while defensive responses tended to increase during a second exposure to the simulated threat. Persistent harassment can therefore escalate an encounter that might otherwise end with the snake retreating.

These findings help challenge the perception that venomous snakes are inherently aggressive or actively seek out opportunities to bite people. They also demonstrate why we should never assume that a snake will respond in the same way as another individual, even when both belong to the same species.

The research does not mean that venomous snakes are harmless or that their behaviour can always be predicted. Rather, it shows that defensive responses depend on the circumstances of an encounter, and that allowing a snake to escape is an important way to reduce the risk of a defensive bite.

Read the full open-access research paper.

Defensive behaviour and warning displays are not unique to South African snakes

Snakes occur across a diverse range of habitats, from tropical rainforests and grasslands to deserts and urban environments. Across these landscapes, they have evolved different ways of avoiding threats, warning potential predators, and defending themselves for survival.

The current study contributes to a broader body of evidence showing that snake defensive behaviour is complex and varies among species.

E.g. 1 Many rattlesnake species use their characteristic rattle as an acoustic warning when threatened. Other defensive responses can include freezing, moving away, adopting a defensive posture, and biting if a threat continues to approach. Research on the Mexican dusky rattlesnake (Crotalus ravus) has documented a range of responses to humans and other simulated predators, illustrating that defensive behaviour can vary with the type and proximity of a threat. (Núñez-Valdez, O.A., et al. 2025).

E.g. 2 Research on North American cottonmouths (Agkistrodon piscivorus) has examined how these snakes respond to disturbance, including defensive displays and biting. Their responses illustrate that a snake’s behaviour is not fixed but rather it can change depending on the circumstances of an encounter and how a perceived threat behaves (Gibbons and Dorcas 2002, Glaudas et al. 2006).

E.g. 3 Research on Australian eastern brown snakes (Pseudonaja textilis) has shown that these snakes often retreat or rely on camouflage to avoid detection when encountering people. In a study of 455 encounters, approximately half resulted in the snake retreating. These findings challenge perceptions of eastern brown snakes as inherently aggressive and demonstrate how allowing snakes space to escape can help reduce the risk of conflict. This is an important reminder that a snake disappearing into vegetation may be choosing the safest available option rather than preparing to pursue a person (Whitaker and Shine 1999).

E.g. 4 Cobras can raise their hoods, hiss, and sometimes perform forward movements that resemble strikes without delivering a bite. Spitting cobras have an additional defensive strategy: projecting venom towards a perceived threat. These behaviours can help deter a potential predator, but they should always be treated as warnings to increase distance, not invitations to approach (Nasoori et al. 2016).

Although these examples come from different regions and species, they highlight a common theme: snakes have evolved a range of strategies for managing threats. Some rely on camouflage and remain undetected, while others retreat, display conspicuous warnings or defensively strike when necessary.

However, it is important not to generalise findings from one species to all snakes. A defensive strategy that is common in one species may be absent or uncommon in another. More research is needed to understand the behaviour of many snake species, particularly those in regions where human–snake conflict is common but behavioural studies remain limited.

Why does this research matter for snakebite prevention?

Snakebite is a serious public health issue, particularly in rural communities where people may encounter snakes while farming, walking outdoors, collecting firewood, or working around their homes. Many encounters occur in situations where people and snakes occupy the same space. A snake may be accidentally approached, stepped on, cornered, or deliberately disturbed. If the animal cannot escape, it may respond defensively.

Understanding this context creates an important opportunity for prevention. Rather than focusing only on identifying dangerous species, snakebite education should also help people understand how to respond when they encounter a snake.

Practical guidance includes:

• Keeping your distance – Never approach a snake to get a closer look or photograph it.
• Allow the snake to retreat – Do not corner, chase, touch, or attempt to kill the snake.
• Avoid handling snakes – Even apparently calm animals can respond defensively, and warning behaviours do not guarantee that a bite will not occur.
• Use a torch at night – Take care when walking outdoors after dark, particularly in areas where snakes are common.
• Seek trained assistance – If a snake is inside a home or poses an immediate concern, contact an appropriately trained local snake rescuer where available.
• Know what to do after a bite – Seek emergency medical care immediately and follow local first-aid guidance. Do not attempt to catch or kill the snake.

These actions protect people while also reducing the likelihood that snakes will be killed out of fear.

Our research also highlights an important distinction: although allowing snakes to escape can reduce the risk of defensive encounters, it cannot eliminate all snakebite risk. Snake behaviour is variable, and bites can occur in different circumstances. Education must therefore combine an understanding of animal behaviour with practical safety measures and access to appropriate healthcare.

How Save The Snakes is helping people and snakes coexist

At Save The Snakes, we recognise that effective snake conservation must consider both the needs of snake populations and the experiences of the people who live alongside them.

Our mission is to conserve snakes through education, research, and community support. We work with Conservation Partners around the world to reduce human–snake conflict, strengthen local conservation capacity, and support communities in developing safer ways to coexist with snakes.

Research such as this provides a scientific foundation for that work.

1. Turning research into practical education

Understanding defensive behaviour helps us develop education programmes that go beyond simply telling people which snakes are dangerous. By explaining why snakes hiss, raise their hoods, spit venom, or strike, we can help people recognise these behaviours as defensive responses and understand why giving snakes space is important.

2. Supporting community-led conservation

People living alongside snakes are often the first to encounter them and the ones who must make decisions about what to do. Through partnerships with local conservationists, educators, and community members, Save The Snakes supports approaches that are informed by local knowledge and practical realities.

3. Strengthening snakebite awareness and prevention

In South Africa, our Snake Education and Community Awareness Program (SECAP), developed in partnership with Hoedspruit Reptile Centre, works with schools, communities, and healthcare workers to address human–snake conflict and promote safer coexistence. The programme connects snake education with community outreach and snakebite awareness. The published research is directly relevant to community members and enables us to help them learn more about snake defensive behaviour.

4. Identifying research gaps

The study also highlights how much remains to be learned about snake behaviour. Expanding research across more species, habitats, and real-world encounter situations can help improve educational resources and develop prevention strategies that reflect the diversity of snakes and the communities living alongside them.

By connecting scientific research with community-based conservation, we can help ensure that knowledge about snakes translates into meaningful outcomes for both people and wildlife.

From fear to understanding

Snakes play important ecological roles, including helping regulate prey populations, yet fear and misinformation can lead to unnecessary killing and make coexistence difficult. Understanding defensive behaviour does not mean ignoring the risks posed by venomous snakes. It means recognising those risks accurately and responding in ways that reduce harm.

These findings show that defensive responses differ between species and that persistent provocation can escalate encounters. By giving snakes space, avoiding unnecessary interference, and improving access to reliable snake education, we can reduce avoidable risks while helping protect these often-misunderstood animals.

At Save The Snakes, we believe that research, education, and community partnerships are essential to building a future in which people can live more safely alongside snakes.

When we understand why snakes behave the way they do, we are better equipped to protect both people and snakes.

Learn more

• Read the full research paper: Determinants of striking and defensive behaviour in four South African medically important snake species
• Learn about Save The Snakes’ mission
• Discover Save The Snakes’ South African education programme

Research citation: Naik, H. & Alexander, G.J. (2026). “Determinants of striking and defensive behaviour in four South African medically important snake species.” Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 80, Article 138.

Other citations
Núñez-Valdez, O.A., Plasman, M. & Hugo Reynoso, V. (2025). Unpredictable aggressive defence of the venomous snake, Crotalus ravus, towards predators and humans. Biology Open, 14(4), p.bio061791.

Gibbons, J. W., & Dorcas, M. E. (2002). Defensive behavior of cottonmouths (Agkistrodon piscivorus) toward humans. Copeia, 2002(1), 195–198.

Glaudas, X., Winne, C. T., & Fedewa, L. A. (2006). Ontogeny of anti-predator behavioral habituation in cottonmouths (Agkistrodon piscivorus). Ethology, 112, 608–615.

Whitaker, P. B., & Shine, R. (1999). Responses of free-ranging brownsnakes (Pseudonaja textilis: Elapidae) to encounters with humans. Wildlife Research, 26(5), 689–704.

Nasoori, A., Shahbazzadeh, D., Tsubota, T., & Young, B. A. (2016). The defensive behaviour of Naja oxiana, with comments on the visual displays of cobras. Herpetological Bulletin, 138, 13–17